buddhist temple nyc
The stupa
The stupa is infact a mound. It is a monument, generally raised on
the site of the funeral pyre or the chitT Hence, it is known as a chaitya.
Generally stupas were raised, where the mortal remains of a great being were
either cremated or buried. A wooden post was generally associated with the
stupas. These posts are known as Chaitya-yupas. Such of the Chaitya-yupas
are known from the burial mounds of Laurya Nandangarh.
The Atharvaveda (10:7:7), the Aeitareya Brahmana (7:3) and the
Asvalayana Grihya Sutra refer to a range of architectural forms, which included
houses, vedic alters, monumental stones, memorial coloumns, different types
of smasanas and sacrificial pillars (Yupas). It was after the Mahaparinirvana
of Taihagata that the stupa architecture was introduced, enlarged and decorated
at a later time. It is possible that the stupa architecture had its evolution out of
the samadhi referred to in the Vedic literature (Pant, Sushila, 2004: p.114).
The Satapada Brahmana suggests that square smasanas were meant
for Gods and circular ones for Asuras. There was a tradition that at the four
comers of the smasana certain pegs were fixed according to the Aranyaparva
of the Mahabharata. These pegs in course of time have taken the form of
pillars in imitation of the Smasana-yupas.
This practice in course of time was modified as erecting a pillar or a
wooden post indicating the place of the burial of a Mahapurusha (Pant, Sushila,
1976: p. 17). In other sectarian classes, the wooden post was intended for
tying the sacrificial animal. We also come across the ancestor worship in the
form of a Bull-pillar. Yupas were also associated with sacrifices symbolizing
the manifest Cosmos and the unmanifest Divine (Mukharjee, Radha Kamal,
1964: p. 47).
Probably the sacrificial posts of the vedic times, which represented
Prajapati Brahma were later on got associated with Smasana-yupa or Chaityayupas.
It is known from the folklore that the standing wooden or stone pillars
associated with village deities had a magico religious purpose. A number of
inscriptions speak of details regarding the installation of a pillar or yupa
associated with events like victory, sacrifice, donation, charity etc. Indian art
is full of examples where in Chakra-stambha, Vriksha-stambha, Garudastambha
etc., were planted close to religious structures. The instance of the
Garuda-pillar by Heleodorous at Vidisha is one such example.
It is also held that a yupa represents a link between the Earth and the
Heaven (Pant, Sushila, 2004: p!19, fn. 24)
Alice Boner (1986) considers a yupa as a solar symbol that stands for
the religiomystic phenomena. When associated with Prajapati and Vishnu
the yupa symbolizes the creative and protective aspects of human nature. The
yupa, thus symbolizes also purusha representing the inseparable relation
between spiritual and material world (Pant, Sushila, 2004: p.118).
Initially mounds of Earth are taken to form the core of the stupa. In
due course of time, the earthen mound is encased in bricks. The brick encasing
is some times superimposed by a cover of stones. The process of encasing the
stupa with dressed stones is known as Sila-achhadana. The stone cover thus
prepared is known as Sila-kanchuka. At Barhut, the stupa was covered with
bricks and these bricks were plastered. Similar is the case with the Dharmarajika
and other stupas of Saranath. The stupa at Sanchi was encased in dressed
stone followed by a thick coating of plaster.
The stupa at Amaravatf was initially encased in bricks and later on
covered by carved limestone slabs. The railing and the gateways were built
around the principal structure in due course of time as in the case of Sanchi
and Amaravatf Among these stupas, there is a gradual evolution from the
simplest form to the most complicated one.
In the ground plan spoked stupas, stupas with two concentric circles
of walls separated by brick built spokes have comeup. Usually, the empty
spaces were filled with earth. However, there are solid stupas built totally of
bricks as in the case of Bhattiprolu. In the history of Indian art great significance
is attached to the stupa both in the religious and the architectural aspects.
Traditions and Symbolism
The monumental stupa has its origin in the religious spirit of the Buddhists primarily. Many epigraphs are known, which speak of the erection and worship of stupa by the devotees of the Buddha. It appears that the great being, Buddha himself has given consent to his devotee Ananda, to worship him in the form of a stupa. “How should we honour the Body of the Tathagata?” asked Ananda. “O! Ananda, you need not engage yourself in worshipping the body of the Tathagata. But you dedicate yourself to the right meaning expounded by the Tathagata as so many Kshatriyas, Brahmanas and house holders are doing”. But Ananda seems to have been not satisfied with the answer and again put the same question. Then Buddha was much pleased and replied. “As they do for the remains of a Chakravartin king, so Ananda they should do for the remains of the Tathagata. As the four cross-roads, similar to the stupa they raise for the Chakravartin, should they raise a stupa for the Tathagata” (Davids,T.W.R., trans,1969a: p. 91). Thus the stupa has come to become the commemorative symbol for Buddha, with the personal consent of the Tathagata Himself. The stupa adopted in the Buddhist monuments must have had a much earlier origin in the megalithic burials of Iron Age in India. It is not surprising that at places like AmaravatTbelow the earliest phase of the Mahastupa. Iron Age levels were encounted during the excavations (Sarkar, H and Nainar, S. R, 1992: p. 26). Even in the Rigveda the flaming pile of Agni is considered as a stupa. Further, a full grown tree also looks like a stupa (Vriksha-chaifya). It is justified that Buddha, the enlightened one was worshipped in the form or symbol of a stupa. It is said that the sacred ashes of the Buddha were divided into eight parts and a stupa was erected on each part in the fond memory and respect to the enlightened one. On the death of the great being Mahakasyapa, the celebrated disciple of Buddha, attended to the last rites. The relics of the Body were taken to Kusfnagara by the Mallas for enshrining them in stupas. There was however, a dispute for the share of the relics. Ajatasatru of Rajagriha, the Lichchavis of VaisalF, the Bulis of Alakappa, the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, the Koliyas of Ramagrama, the Mallas of Pava, and a Brahmin presented their claim for the relics, from the Mallas of Kusfnagara. With a view to avoiding the dispute, Drona, a brahmana appealed to them for peace and divided the relics into eight shares. On these portions of the eight shares stupas were erected in due course of time. Emperor Asoka opened all the stupas excepting the one at Ramagrama and further divided the relics and caused the construction of a number of stupas (Patil, D.R.,1981: pp. 7-8). According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Lord Buddha himself has indicated to Ananda the names of four places, which are closely associated with his life. It is ordained by Buddha that a believer should visit these four places with reverence. The four places included Lumbini in the Nepali tarai, where Buddha was born; Bodhgaya near Gaya in south Bihar where Buddha obtained his Enlightenment; Saranath near Varanasi, where the Buddha turned the wheel of Dharma and finally Kusihagara, in Utter Pradesh where Buddha attained his Parinirvana. In addition to the above four places of significance, the Buddhist tradition identified four more places which are closely associated with the life of Buddha as important places of Buddhist pilgrimage. These included Sravastf, where the Buddha performed the great miracle, Rajagriha, where he tamed a mad elephant, VaisalC where a monkey offered honey to Buddha and Sankasya, where the Buddha descended from Heaven. SravastT is also important on account of the Jetavana uihara where Anadhapindika dedicated Jetavana which was purchased with a layer of Gold pieces. Also the Jetavana consisted of Gandhakutf and Kausambakutf in addition to Karerakutf associated with the stay of Buddha at that place. Prasenajit was converted to Buddhism at Jetavana. A panel representing Jetavana scene is available at Amaravaifon a stele (Venkataramayya, M.,1981: p. 3) According to Stella Kramrisch (1976: R148, Fn.50), chaitya is a derivative of citi and in the Buddhist context it refers to a man made form of a stupa. It is also the resting place or the abode of divinity. A chaitya can also be called as B uddha-ayatanam. Stella Kramrisch is of the opinion that the shape of the stupa recalls the pile of the altar which evokes that of the World Egg (1987: p. 22) The learned people of the ages considered the stupa as a metaphysical symbol, while for the common people it is the visible symbol of great being. The spherical or cylindrical drum crowned by Harmika is considered to be the true representation of the Mahapurusha. The Buddhists have selected the wheel and the stupa as the symbols for the great being as well as for the Cosmos. The wheel becomes the symbol of Dharma, which in turn is the foundation and the support for the Cosmos. While erecting the stupas the Buddhists placed emphasis an round or globular shape. While choosing the round shape the Buddhists were perhaps actuated by a desire to symbolize the Sun, the radiating sources of all energy. A great Being like the Budha, radiates like the Sun, the same Cosmic energy. Any stupa not only houses the relics of Buddha or a Mahapurusha but by itself represents symbolically the geometric image of the Buddhist Cosmology (Kameswara Rao, N., 1995: p. 866). It is further stated that the stupas with the four entrances are oriented as precisely as possible towards the four cardinal points. ‘The measurements are based on the elements derived from the Solar symbolism that set the circle of railing in motion as the course of the Sun or the infinite Cosmos’ (Volwashen, A.,1969). While studying the astronomical aspects of the Mahastupa at Sanchi it has been noted that the present orientation of the eastern gate and the western gate is deliberately done to align towards the moon rise and the sunset on the Buddhapurnima day, which is highly auspicious to the Buddhists (Kameswara Rao, N., 1995: p. 868).
General Characteristics of a Stupa
Stupas are usually built on a foundation laid with blocks of stone or
bricks. If it is stone built it is called the Pashana-kuttima. On this foundation
a Hemispherical dome, which is known as the'anda' of the stupa, was raised.
The earlier stupas had a diameter than those of the later period. The Drum of
the earlier stupas is described as the bell shape or Ghantakara. In later years,
the drum of the stupa became more elongated and elevated. Almost it took
the form of a cylindrical vessel. It is described as a giant water bubble (probably
indicating the transient nature of life) (PLATE -1).
On the truncated top of the hemisphere a harmika is placed,
surrounded by a railing. At the centre of the harmika, a post was fixed and
surmounted by parasols. In some cases we find two posts with parasols.
The stupa is enclosed by a vedika. At Barhut, Sanchi and Amaravatf
the vedika consisted of upright pillars with three transverse bars known as the
suchi. The railing is provided with four gateways.
A path of circumambulation runs round the stupa at the ground level
within the railing. About the middle of the dome another Pradakshinapatha is
provided in the case of large stupas.
The ground railings at Barhut and Sanchi are decorated with sculptured
panels. At Amaravatf and Nagarjunakonda the stupa itself is encased in
limestone panels of sculptures.
In the vicinity of the Mahachaityas, votive stupas are also erected which
were dedicated by lay-worshippers. In the vicinity of rock-cut caves of the
Buddhists, the votive stupas are carved out of the living rock as at Sankaram.
Infront of the gateways of the Mahastupa usually long columns of stone are
erected which are crowned by a Dharmachakra or such other motives. At
Sanchi and Saranath, the crowning members are carved as the lion capitals.
The Chaitya-halls and Chaitya-grihas
The word chaitya and its significance has already been discussed in
the preceding pages. In any place of worship of the Buddhist creed the presence
of stupa as the centre of dedication has become an essential feature. The
chapels or temples that housed the stupes have come to become the Chaityagrihas
and Chaitya-halls. Normally, Chaitya-grihas do not contain cells for the
residence of the monks. However, an exemption to this can be seen at locations
like cave no.8 of Shelarwad, 3 km south-west of Talegaon on the Poona-
Bombay line. These particular class of temples have been referred to as
Chettyaghara cum Lena (Nagaraju.S., 1981: p. 295, fig. 59, no.8)
At Nagarjunakonda, the monastic units at site no. 2-N, XII site no.
23- N, XI, site no. 38-N, III, we find structural stupes associated with the vihara
complexes (Soundara Rajan, K.V., 2006: MASI no-75, Vol.II, p.161 fig-38,
p.179 fig- 50, p.187 fig- 54)
The earliest form of such a chaitya contains an oblong room. Its length
is almost double the width. The chaitya is entered from one end and at the other end a small stupa is situated. The stupa is generally surmounted by a
harmika and chhatra. These early chaityas are apsidal in plan. The exemption
to this is cave no.9 at Ajanta, which is square ended (Nagaraju, S., 1981: fig-
17). A Pradakshinapatha is left around the stupa for circumambulation.
The square ended chaitya halls are also referred to as quadrilateral
chapels. The later Buddhist temples at Buddhagaya (Bodhgaya), Nalanda,
Ellora, Ajanta, Kuda, Shelarwadi, Karad etc., consist of a square or oblong
ground plan (Sarkar, H., 1993: pp. 42-44, fig-14).
As the Chaitya-griha underwent enlargement for accommodating more
and more devotees, there arose a need for admitting sufficient light for the
interior of the cave. Thus a chaitya window pierced in the facade has come
into existence. In due course of time the chaitya window has become an
ornament to the facade, sometimes surmounted by a rail pattern. At
Nagatjunakonda, though a number of vihara complexes have come to light,
only the ground plans are available and the superstructures are lost. Therefore,
it is hard to decide whether in the structural examples the super structure is
flat or domical.
The Vihara
Viharas are constructed for the residence of the monks. In the early
examples they contained only one or more cells with a varandah in the front.
The cells so constructed were also small. In the later examples some of the cells contained stone benches or beds for the monks. In the brick built examples
of Nagarjunakonda also we find such provision for beds as at the Bahusruifya
monastery.
All the viharas in the Rock-cut examples had provision for water in
the form of cisterns cut into rock. In the case of structural examples however,
we have brick built troughs and probably portable water pots.
In the early viharas, as they were small in their size there were no
pillars, but in the later examples pillars are introduced to support the roof as
the size of the vihara became large. These pillars separate the central square
area from the side aisles. One such arrangement can be seen in cave no. 11 at
Ajanta. Pillared halls surrounded by cells, in structural examples have a pattern
similar to the one at MahTsasaka vihara of Nagarjunakonda (Soundara Rajan,
K.V., 2006: MASI no-75, p.168 fig-43). Cave no.6 of Ajanta is a monastery
with two-storeys. Similar examples can also be seen at Ellora (Brown, Percy,
1956: p. 59). To what extent the vihara complexes of structural nature contained
top floors is hard to determine as superstructures in all these cases have
collapsed with the passage of time.
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The monumental stupa has its origin in the religious spirit of the Buddhists primarily. Many epigraphs are known, which speak of the erection and worship of stupa by the devotees of the Buddha. It appears that the great being, Buddha himself has given consent to his devotee Ananda, to worship him in the form of a stupa. “How should we honour the Body of the Tathagata?” asked Ananda. “O! Ananda, you need not engage yourself in worshipping the body of the Tathagata. But you dedicate yourself to the right meaning expounded by the Tathagata as so many Kshatriyas, Brahmanas and house holders are doing”. But Ananda seems to have been not satisfied with the answer and again put the same question. Then Buddha was much pleased and replied. “As they do for the remains of a Chakravartin king, so Ananda they should do for the remains of the Tathagata. As the four cross-roads, similar to the stupa they raise for the Chakravartin, should they raise a stupa for the Tathagata” (Davids,T.W.R., trans,1969a: p. 91). Thus the stupa has come to become the commemorative symbol for Buddha, with the personal consent of the Tathagata Himself. The stupa adopted in the Buddhist monuments must have had a much earlier origin in the megalithic burials of Iron Age in India. It is not surprising that at places like AmaravatTbelow the earliest phase of the Mahastupa. Iron Age levels were encounted during the excavations (Sarkar, H and Nainar, S. R, 1992: p. 26). Even in the Rigveda the flaming pile of Agni is considered as a stupa. Further, a full grown tree also looks like a stupa (Vriksha-chaifya). It is justified that Buddha, the enlightened one was worshipped in the form or symbol of a stupa. It is said that the sacred ashes of the Buddha were divided into eight parts and a stupa was erected on each part in the fond memory and respect to the enlightened one. On the death of the great being Mahakasyapa, the celebrated disciple of Buddha, attended to the last rites. The relics of the Body were taken to Kusfnagara by the Mallas for enshrining them in stupas. There was however, a dispute for the share of the relics. Ajatasatru of Rajagriha, the Lichchavis of VaisalF, the Bulis of Alakappa, the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, the Koliyas of Ramagrama, the Mallas of Pava, and a Brahmin presented their claim for the relics, from the Mallas of Kusfnagara. With a view to avoiding the dispute, Drona, a brahmana appealed to them for peace and divided the relics into eight shares. On these portions of the eight shares stupas were erected in due course of time. Emperor Asoka opened all the stupas excepting the one at Ramagrama and further divided the relics and caused the construction of a number of stupas (Patil, D.R.,1981: pp. 7-8). According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Lord Buddha himself has indicated to Ananda the names of four places, which are closely associated with his life. It is ordained by Buddha that a believer should visit these four places with reverence. The four places included Lumbini in the Nepali tarai, where Buddha was born; Bodhgaya near Gaya in south Bihar where Buddha obtained his Enlightenment; Saranath near Varanasi, where the Buddha turned the wheel of Dharma and finally Kusihagara, in Utter Pradesh where Buddha attained his Parinirvana. In addition to the above four places of significance, the Buddhist tradition identified four more places which are closely associated with the life of Buddha as important places of Buddhist pilgrimage. These included Sravastf, where the Buddha performed the great miracle, Rajagriha, where he tamed a mad elephant, VaisalC where a monkey offered honey to Buddha and Sankasya, where the Buddha descended from Heaven. SravastT is also important on account of the Jetavana uihara where Anadhapindika dedicated Jetavana which was purchased with a layer of Gold pieces. Also the Jetavana consisted of Gandhakutf and Kausambakutf in addition to Karerakutf associated with the stay of Buddha at that place. Prasenajit was converted to Buddhism at Jetavana. A panel representing Jetavana scene is available at Amaravaifon a stele (Venkataramayya, M.,1981: p. 3) According to Stella Kramrisch (1976: R148, Fn.50), chaitya is a derivative of citi and in the Buddhist context it refers to a man made form of a stupa. It is also the resting place or the abode of divinity. A chaitya can also be called as B uddha-ayatanam. Stella Kramrisch is of the opinion that the shape of the stupa recalls the pile of the altar which evokes that of the World Egg (1987: p. 22) The learned people of the ages considered the stupa as a metaphysical symbol, while for the common people it is the visible symbol of great being. The spherical or cylindrical drum crowned by Harmika is considered to be the true representation of the Mahapurusha. The Buddhists have selected the wheel and the stupa as the symbols for the great being as well as for the Cosmos. The wheel becomes the symbol of Dharma, which in turn is the foundation and the support for the Cosmos. While erecting the stupas the Buddhists placed emphasis an round or globular shape. While choosing the round shape the Buddhists were perhaps actuated by a desire to symbolize the Sun, the radiating sources of all energy. A great Being like the Budha, radiates like the Sun, the same Cosmic energy. Any stupa not only houses the relics of Buddha or a Mahapurusha but by itself represents symbolically the geometric image of the Buddhist Cosmology (Kameswara Rao, N., 1995: p. 866). It is further stated that the stupas with the four entrances are oriented as precisely as possible towards the four cardinal points. ‘The measurements are based on the elements derived from the Solar symbolism that set the circle of railing in motion as the course of the Sun or the infinite Cosmos’ (Volwashen, A.,1969). While studying the astronomical aspects of the Mahastupa at Sanchi it has been noted that the present orientation of the eastern gate and the western gate is deliberately done to align towards the moon rise and the sunset on the Buddhapurnima day, which is highly auspicious to the Buddhists (Kameswara Rao, N., 1995: p. 868).
General Characteristics of a Stupa
The Vihara
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